Passage 1 (Questions 1-10)
The paradox of our time is that we have taller buildings but shorter tempers, wider freeways but narrower viewpoints. We spend more but have less; we buy more but enjoy less. We have bigger houses and smaller families, more conveniences but less time. We have more degrees but less sense, more knowledge but less judgment, more experts yet more problems, more medicine but less wellness. We have multiplied our possessions, but reduced our values. We talk too much, love too seldom, and hate too often. We’ve learned how to make a living, but not a life. We’ve added years to life, not life to years. This is the dichotomy of modern existence, a testament to material progress failing to correlate with an increase in genuine contentment.
1. What is the central theme of the passage?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The entire passage is structured around a series of contrasts (paradoxes) that highlight how advancements in material possessions and conveniences (“taller buildings,” “more medicine”) have not led to greater happiness or fulfillment (“shorter tempers,” “less wellness”). This points directly to the disconnect between material progress and genuine contentment or spiritual well-being.
2. The author’s tone can best be described as:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The author uses phrases like “shorter tempers,” “narrower viewpoints,” “reduced our values,” and “love too seldom” to express a deep disappointment with the state of modern life. This tone is not neutral or celebratory; it’s a critique and a lament for what has been lost despite material gains.
3. What does the author mean by “We’ve added years to life, not life to years”?
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Correct Answer: (A)
Explanation: This phrase is a powerful summary of the passage’s main idea. “Adding years to life” refers to increased longevity due to medical and technological advances. “Not life to years” means that the quality, depth, and joy of those extended years have diminished. It perfectly captures the paradox of a longer but less fulfilling existence.
4. The word “dichotomy” in the last sentence most nearly means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: A dichotomy is a contrast or division between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different. The author uses it to describe the sharp split between material gain and the lack of contentment, which are presented as contradictory aspects of “modern existence.”
5. Which of the following is NOT a paradox mentioned by the author?
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage mentions (A), (B), and (C) directly. While the idea of “more conveniences but less time” is present, the specific paradox of “more leisure time but less relaxation” is not explicitly stated, even though it fits the theme. The question asks what is NOT mentioned.
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The author isn’t offering a specific solution or calling for the abandonment of technology. The passage is a commentary designed to make the reader think. By presenting these paradoxes, the author challenges the conventional definition of “progress” and encourages the reader to reflect on what constitutes a good life.
7. It can be inferred from the passage that the author values:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The author critiques the overemphasis on things like possessions, degrees, and conveniences. By lamenting the loss of “sense,” “judgment,” “love,” and “life” in our years, it’s clear the author places a higher value on intangible qualities like wisdom, genuine human connection, and contentment (inner peace).
8. The phrase “narrower viewpoints” is used to contrast with:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The author structures the paradoxes as direct contrasts. The sentence reads: “…wider freeways but narrower viewpoints.” The physical wideness of the roads is juxtaposed with the metaphorical narrowness of people’s minds or perspectives.
9. The author believes that modern society has successfully learned how to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage explicitly states, “We’ve learned how to make a living, but not a life.” “Making a living” is synonymous with earning money and sustaining a livelihood. The author concedes this is a skill we have acquired, but contrasts it with our failure to build a meaningful “life.”
10. The final sentence serves to:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The final sentence, “This is the dichotomy of modern existence, a testament to material progress failing to correlate with an increase in genuine contentment,” acts as a concluding thesis statement. It gives a name (“dichotomy”) to the series of paradoxes and explicitly states the core problem: material progress doesn’t equal happiness. It encapsulates the entire argument.
Passage 2 (Questions 11-20)
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass extinction. The community begins with a few pioneering species that are hardy and tolerant of harsh conditions. These pioneers, through their life processes, alter the environment—creating soil, providing shade, and increasing humidity. This alteration allows other, less hardy species to establish themselves. These new species, in turn, may outcompete and replace the pioneers. This process continues, with a series of communities replacing one another, until a relatively stable and self-perpetuating climax community is reached. However, the traditional view of a single, predictable climax community has been challenged. Modern ecologists now recognize that succession is a more complex and less deterministic process, influenced by chance events, climate fluctuations, and the specific traits of the species involved. The endpoint may not be a single, static state but rather a dynamic mosaic of patches in different successional stages.
11. What is the primary purpose of this passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage first defines and describes the traditional model of ecological succession, from pioneers to a climax community. It then introduces a more modern, complex view. This structure serves to explain the concept and highlight the evolution in scientific thought about it.
12. The word “hardy” as used in the passage means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Pioneering species are described as the first to colonize an area with “harsh conditions.” Therefore, “hardy” in this context means robust and able to survive in such an environment.
13. According to the passage, how do pioneering species facilitate the growth of other species?
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage explicitly states that pioneers “alter the environment—creating soil, providing shade, and increasing humidity.” This alteration is what “allows other, less hardy species to establish themselves.”
14. What has challenged the traditional view of a climax community?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage states, “the traditional view… has been challenged.” It then explains that modern ecologists see succession as “less deterministic” and “influenced by chance events, climate fluctuations, and the specific traits of the species involved.” This directly supports option B.
15. The term “deterministic” in the context of the passage implies a process that is:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: A deterministic process is one where the outcome is predetermined by the initial conditions. The traditional view saw succession as a predictable path to a single climax community. The modern view is “less deterministic,” meaning it’s not as predictable and doesn’t always follow the same set path.
16. The modern ecological view suggests the final stage of succession might be a “dynamic mosaic.” This phrase implies an ecosystem that is:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: “Dynamic” means characterized by constant change, activity, or progress. “Mosaic” refers to a picture or pattern produced by arranging together small colored pieces. Together, “dynamic mosaic” paints a picture of an ecosystem that is not a single, static entity but a patchwork (“mosaic”) of different areas in various stages of development, all of which are continuously changing (“dynamic”).
17. It can be inferred that the relationship between pioneering species and the species that follow them is initially _______, but can become _______.
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: Initially, the pioneers *facilitate* the arrival of new species by improving the environment. The passage says they “allow other, less hardy species to establish themselves.” However, it then states that these new species “may outcompete and replace the pioneers.” Thus, the relationship becomes *competitive*.
18. The passage mentions wildfires and mass extinctions as examples of:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage introduces these events when discussing the time scale of succession. It says the process can happen over decades “(for example, after a wildfire)” or millions of years “(after a mass extinction).” This indicates that these events are triggers or starting points for a new cycle of succession.
19. The word “self-perpetuating” as it describes a climax community suggests that the community can:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: “To perpetuate” means to make something continue indefinitely. A “self-perpetuating” community is one that can sustain its structure and species composition over a long period, essentially regenerating itself without evolving into a different type of community. It is the definition of stability in this context.
20. How has the understanding of ecological succession evolved, according to the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage contrasts the “traditional view of a single, predictable climax community” (a linear and predictable process) with the “modern” view that it is “more complex and less deterministic,” influenced by chance and other factors (a probabilistic process). This marks a clear evolution in scientific understanding.
Passage 3 (Questions 21-30)
The concept of “cognitive dissonance,” first proposed by Leon Festinger, posits that individuals experience mental discomfort when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values, or when their beliefs are contradicted by new information. The theory suggests that people have a motivational drive to reduce this dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions. For instance, a person who smokes (Action) while knowing that smoking causes cancer (Belief) experiences cognitive dissonance. To reduce this discomfort, they might quit smoking (changing the action), dismiss the evidence about cancer (changing the belief), or rationalize their behavior by saying, “It helps me relax, and stress is also bad for you” (adding a new consonant belief). This drive to achieve cognitive consistency is a powerful determinant of human behavior, often operating subconsciously and leading individuals to justify choices or commitments they have already made, a phenomenon known as post-decision rationalization.
21. What is the main subject of the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage introduces, defines, and provides an example of cognitive dissonance, a specific psychological theory. The other options are either used as an example (smoking) or are too broad (decision-making) or irrelevant (Festinger’s biography).
22. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a conflict between:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The first sentence defines cognitive dissonance as the discomfort experienced when an individual holds “two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values, or when their beliefs are contradicted by new information.” The smoking example clearly illustrates a conflict between an action and a belief.
23. The word “posits” in the first sentence is closest in meaning to:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: To posit something is to put it forward as a basis for argument or as a fact; to propose or suggest. Leon Festinger proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance.
24. According to the passage, which of the following is NOT a way to reduce cognitive dissonance for a smoker who knows smoking is harmful?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The theory suggests a “motivational drive to *reduce* this dissonance.” Options A, B, and D are all strategies listed in the passage for reducing the discomfort. Acknowledging the conflict and simply continuing to feel uncomfortable is the *state* of dissonance, not a method of reducing it.
25. “Post-decision rationalization” is described as a phenomenon where people:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage defines this phenomenon as leading individuals “to justify choices or commitments they have already made.” This means that after a decision is made (post-decision), people rationalize it to make it seem like the best possible choice, thus reducing any dissonance or doubt.
26. The passage suggests that the drive to reduce cognitive dissonance is:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage calls it a “powerful determinant of human behavior” that “often operat[es] subconsciously.” This indicates it is a fundamental (powerful determinant) and not always conscious process, which aligns perfectly with option D.
27. A person buys an expensive car and then reads several articles praising its performance and safety. This behavior is a likely example of:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: After making a major purchase (an expensive car), a person might feel dissonance (e.g., “Did I spend too much? Was it the right choice?”). To reduce this dissonance, they seek out information that confirms their decision was a good one. This is a classic example of post-decision rationalization, justifying a choice already made.
28. The word “consonant” in “adding a new consonant belief” means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: In this context, “consonant” is the opposite of “dissonant.” A consonant belief is one that is consistent or in harmony with the person’s action. The smoker adds the belief “stress is also bad” to make their action of smoking (to reduce stress) seem more consistent and acceptable.
29. The primary purpose of the smoking example is to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The example of the smoker is a classic, easy-to-understand case that makes the abstract concept of cognitive dissonance tangible. It clearly shows the conflict (action vs. belief) and the potential ways to resolve it, thus illustrating the theory effectively for the reader.
30. It can be inferred that a person with very rigid and unchanging beliefs might:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: If a person’s beliefs are rigid, they are unlikely to change them (ruling out D). If they are also unwilling to change their actions (often tied to beliefs), they would experience significant discomfort (dissonance) when presented with conflicting facts. According to the theory, a primary way to reduce this dissonance is to alter one of the conflicting elements. If the belief is rigid, the most likely path is to attack or dismiss the new, contradictory information.
Passage 4 (Questions 31-40)
The rise of the “gig economy” represents a fundamental shift in the nature of work, moving away from traditional, long-term employer-employee relationships towards a model of short-term, task-based contracts. Proponents celebrate this shift for its flexibility, autonomy, and entrepreneurial opportunities. For workers, it offers the freedom to choose when and where to work; for businesses, it provides a nimble workforce that can scale up or down on demand without the overheads of permanent staff. However, this model is not without its trenchant critics. They argue that the gig economy systematically dismantles decades of hard-won labor protections, such as minimum wage, overtime pay, and workplace safety regulations. Workers are often classified as “independent contractors,” a designation that absolves companies of the responsibility to provide benefits like health insurance and retirement plans. The result, critics contend, is a precarious workforce, living with income instability and a frayed social safety net, exacerbating economic inequality. The debate, therefore, is not merely economic but deeply ideological, pitting the values of libertarian freedom against those of communal security.
31. What is the main purpose of the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage first presents the positive aspects of the gig economy (“proponents celebrate…”) and then presents the negative aspects (“critics argue…”). It concludes by framing the issue as a debate between two value systems. This structure indicates a balanced presentation of a complex issue.
32. The word “trenchant” in the passage is closest in meaning to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: “Trenchant” means sharp, forceful, and effective in expression. A “trenchant critic” is one who makes very strong, clear, and cutting arguments. The description of the critics’ arguments that follow (dismantling labor protections, creating a precarious workforce) supports this strong meaning.
33. According to proponents, what is a key benefit of the gig economy for businesses?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage explicitly states that for businesses, the gig economy “provides a nimble workforce that can scale up or down on demand without the overheads of permanent staff.” This directly corresponds to option B.
34. The classification of workers as “independent contractors” is significant because it:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage highlights this as a major point of criticism, stating that this designation “absolves companies of the responsibility to provide benefits like health insurance and retirement plans.”
35. The word “precarious” as used to describe the workforce most nearly means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage describes this workforce as living with “income instability and a frayed social safety net.” This context of uncertainty and lack of security directly defines the meaning of “precarious.”
36. What fundamental conflict does the author identify at the heart of the gig economy debate?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The final sentence explicitly frames the debate as “pitting the values of libertarian freedom” (individual autonomy, flexibility) “against those of communal security” (labor protections, social safety net).
37. It can be inferred that the author believes the debate over the gig economy is:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: By presenting both sides thoroughly and concluding that the debate is “not merely economic but deeply ideological,” the author implies that this is a complex and profound issue. The framing of “libertarian freedom versus communal security” points to a fundamental, not superficial, disagreement.
38. Which of the following is presented as a criticism of the gig economy?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage clearly states that critics argue the model “dismantles decades of hard-won labor protections” and that companies are absolved of providing benefits. This is the core of the criticism described.
39. The word “nimble” used to describe the workforce suggests that it is:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: “Nimble” means quick and light in movement or action; agile. In this business context, a nimble workforce is one that can be expanded, reduced, or changed quickly and easily to meet changing demands, making it adaptable.
40. The author’s tone in this passage is best described as:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The author presents the arguments of both proponents and critics without taking a clear personal stance. The language used is descriptive and informative, analyzing the situation from both perspectives. This makes the tone analytical and objective.
Passage 5 (Questions 41-50)
Stoicism, an ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. The philosophy holds that we cannot control external events, only our responses to them. A primary tenet of Stoicism is the distinction between what is within our control and what is not. Our thoughts, judgments, and actions are within our control; everything else—our health, wealth, reputation, and the actions of others—is not. By focusing our energy exclusively on what we can control, the Stoics argued, we can achieve a state of ‘apatheia,’ or tranquility and freedom from passion. This is not to be confused with modern apathy, which implies indifference. Rather, Stoic ‘apatheia’ is a state of equanimity, a clear and untroubled mind that allows one to engage with the world virtuously and rationally, irrespective of the vicissitudes of fortune.
41. What is the central idea of Stoic philosophy as described in the passage?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage repeatedly emphasizes this core concept: “we cannot control external events, only our responses to them” and “By focusing our energy exclusively on what we can control, the Stoics argued, we can achieve… tranquility.”
42. The passage distinguishes between Stoic ‘apatheia’ and modern apathy by stating that ‘apatheia’ is:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage explicitly says, “This is not to be confused with modern apathy, which implies indifference. Rather, Stoic ‘apatheia’ is a state of equanimity, a clear and untroubled mind…” This directly supports option C.
43. According to Stoicism, which of the following is within an individual’s control?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage lists “thoughts, judgments, and actions” as being within our control. Reputation, the actions of others (like voters), and health/wealth are listed as things *not* in our control. Therefore, one’s judgment about an illness is the only controllable element among the choices.
44. The word “fortitude” in the first sentence means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Fortitude refers to mental and emotional strength in facing difficulty, adversity, danger, or temptation with courage. It fits the context of developing self-control to overcome destructive emotions.
45. The “vicissitudes of fortune” refers to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: “Vicissitudes” are changes of circumstances or fortune, typically ones that are unwelcome or unpleasant. The phrase “vicissitudes of fortune” encompasses the ups and downs of life that are outside our control, which is the central theme of Stoicism.
46. A Stoic’s primary goal in engaging with the world is to do so:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The final sentence states that the clear mind of ‘apatheia’ “allows one to engage with the world virtuously and rationally.” This is presented as the proper way to act, according to the philosophy.
47. The passage implies that destructive emotions arise from:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The entire philosophy is structured as a solution to destructive emotions. The solution proposed is to stop worrying about what is outside our control (health, wealth, etc.) and focus only on our responses. Therefore, it is the attachment to and desire to control these external things that is the source of the destructive emotions.
48. The word “tenet” is closest in meaning to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: A tenet is a main principle or belief, especially one of the main principles of a religion or philosophy. The passage introduces “a primary tenet” which is the core belief about what is and is not in our control.
49. How would a Stoic likely react to losing a large sum of money in the stock market?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: According to Stoicism, wealth is not within one’s ultimate control. Therefore, the external event (losing money) should not cause destructive emotions. The proper Stoic response would be to focus on what *is* controllable: one’s judgment about the event and one’s actions moving forward. This involves acceptance and a rational approach to the new reality.
50. The purpose of the passage is primarily to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage is expository in nature. It defines Stoicism, explains its central distinction (what is in our control vs. what is not), clarifies a key term (‘apatheia’), and describes its ultimate goal. Its main function is to inform the reader about these core principles.
Passage 6 (Questions 51-60)
The history of science is replete with instances of serendipity—the faculty of making fortunate discoveries by accident. Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin from a mold-contaminated petri dish is perhaps the most canonical example. However, to attribute such breakthroughs solely to chance is to misunderstand the nature of scientific inquiry. The French chemist Louis Pasteur famously noted, “Chance favors only the prepared mind.” Fleming was not merely lucky; his mind was prepared by years of research on antibacterial agents. He recognized the significance of the mold’s effect, an observation that another, less prepared individual might have easily dismissed as a ruined experiment. Similarly, the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation, a faint echo of the Big Bang, was made by two radio astronomers trying to eliminate persistent ‘noise’ from their antenna. Their genius lay not in stumbling upon the noise, but in their refusal to ignore it and their methodical investigation into its source, which ultimately confirmed a major prediction of cosmological theory. True serendipity in science, therefore, is not a passive event but an active process of observation, curiosity, and intellectual readiness meeting an unexpected opportunity.
51. What is the central argument of the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage starts by introducing serendipity but immediately qualifies it, arguing against attributing discoveries “solely to chance.” It uses Pasteur’s quote “Chance favors only the prepared mind” as its guiding thesis and provides two examples (Fleming, cosmic background radiation) to show that the observer’s preparedness was key to turning an accident into a discovery.
52. The word “canonical” in the first paragraph most nearly means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: A canonical example is one that is considered the most standard, authoritative, or classic representation of something. Fleming’s discovery of penicillin is the most widely cited and accepted example of serendipity in science.
53. Why does the author quote Louis Pasteur?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The quote “Chance favors only the prepared mind” perfectly encapsulates the author’s argument that luck alone is not enough; intellectual readiness is crucial. The author uses this famous quote to state the main thesis elegantly and authoritatively.
54. What was the key element in Fleming’s discovery, according to the passage?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage states, “He recognized the significance of the mold’s effect, an observation that another, less prepared individual might have easily dismissed…” This highlights that his prepared mind and ability to recognize the importance of the accident were the crucial factors.
55. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation is used as an example to show that:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The example serves two purposes. First, by moving from biology (Fleming) to astronomy, it shows the principle applies broadly (A). Second, it illustrates a different kind of “prepared mind”—not just prior knowledge, but the active curiosity and refusal to ignore an anomaly (“persistent ‘noise'”), which is a form of intellectual readiness (B).
56. The author redefines “serendipity in science” as:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The final sentence provides a clear redefinition: “True serendipity in science, therefore, is not a passive event but an active process of observation, curiosity, and intellectual readiness meeting an unexpected opportunity.”
57. The phrase “replete with” means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: “Replete with” means full of or abundant in. The sentence means that the history of science is full of examples of serendipity.
58. What can be inferred about the author’s view of a “less prepared individual”?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage says a less prepared person “might have easily dismissed [the observation] as a ruined experiment.” This implies they would see it as a problem to be discarded rather than an opportunity to be investigated, viewing it as a simple failure.
59. The author’s tone is best described as:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The author has a clear point to teach the reader: that serendipity is more than just luck. The passage is structured like a lesson, with a main thesis, supporting examples, and a concluding summary. This instructive, teaching tone is best described as didactic.
60. The passage suggests that true scientific breakthroughs often require:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Both examples support this idea. Fleming investigated the anomaly of the bacteria-free zone around the mold. The radio astronomers investigated the anomaly of the “persistent ‘noise’.” In both cases, the breakthrough came from not ignoring something that didn’t fit expectations.
Passage 7 (Questions 61-70)
In the realm of literary criticism, the concept of the “unreliable narrator” is a powerful tool for creating complex and engaging narratives. An unreliable narrator is a character whose telling of the story is not completely accurate or credible due to problems with their mental state, their inherent bias, or their deliberate deception. This technique forces readers to move beyond passive reception of the story and become active participants, questioning the narrative and attempting to separate fact from misrepresentation. The gap between the narrator’s account and the discerning reader’s interpretation creates a rich layer of irony and subtext. For instance, the narrator of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Tell-Tale Heart” repeatedly insists on his sanity, yet his manic energy and obsessive focus on the “vulture eye” clearly betray his derangement. The effectiveness of the unreliable narrator lies not in simply tricking the reader, but in revealing deeper truths about the narrator’s psychology and the subjective nature of reality itself.
61. What is the primary focus of the passage?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage defines the “unreliable narrator,” explains how it works, what effect it has on the reader, and provides a classic example. Its entire purpose is to explain this specific literary concept.
62. According to the passage, why might a narrator be unreliable?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage explicitly lists the reasons for unreliability: “problems with their mental state, their inherent bias, or their deliberate deception.” This directly corresponds to psychological instability and personal bias.
63. The use of an unreliable narrator encourages the reader to be more:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage says this technique “forces readers to move beyond passive reception” and become “active participants, questioning the narrative and attempting to separate fact from misrepresentation.” This process of questioning and separating fact from fiction is an analytical activity.
64. The word “discerning” in the passage means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: A discerning reader is one who is able to perceive or recognize things clearly and make astute judgments. The passage contrasts the narrator’s account with the “discerning reader’s interpretation,” implying this reader can see through the narrator’s unreliability.
65. The example from “The Tell-Tale Heart” illustrates a narrator who is unreliable due to:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage points out that the narrator’s insistence on his sanity is contradicted by his “manic energy and obsessive focus,” which “clearly betray his derangement.” This points directly to an unstable mental state as the cause of his unreliability.
66. The “gap” mentioned in the passage refers to the difference between:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage states: “The gap between the narrator’s account and the discerning reader’s interpretation creates a rich layer of irony and subtext.” This is precisely the difference between what is explicitly said and what is understood to be the reality of the situation.
67. The ultimate purpose of using an unreliable narrator is to:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The final sentence concludes that the effectiveness of the device lies in “revealing deeper truths about the narrator’s psychology and the subjective nature of reality itself.” This points to a more profound literary purpose than simply creating a plot twist.
68. It can be inferred that a story with a reliable narrator would likely:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage states that the unreliable narrator *forces* the reader to become an active participant and question everything. By contrast, a reliable narrator presents a story that can be taken more at face value, thus requiring less of this specific type of critical analysis to separate fact from fiction.
69. The word “subtext” in this context refers to:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Subtext is the content of a book, play, or movie which is not announced explicitly by the characters (or narrator) but is implicit or becomes understood by the reader or viewer. The gap created by the unreliable narrator is a major source of subtext.
70. The narrator of “The Tell-Tale Heart” betrays his unreliability through his:
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Correct Answer: (A)
Explanation: The passage highlights the contradiction: he “repeatedly insists on his sanity” (his claim), “yet his manic energy and obsessive focus” (his actions and thoughts) “clearly betray his derangement.” The conflict between his words and his actions/mental state reveals his unreliability.
Passage 8 (Questions 71-80)
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, in its strongest form known as linguistic determinism, posits that the language an individual speaks fundamentally shapes and limits their cognitive processes. According to this view, one cannot think about concepts for which their language has no words. For example, a speaker of a language with no distinct words for “blue” and “green” would not be able to perceive them as separate colors. This strong version of the hypothesis, however, has been largely discredited by modern linguists and cognitive scientists. Evidence shows that speakers can perceive and conceptualize things for which they lack a specific term. A more widely accepted, weaker version, known as linguistic relativity, suggests that language influences thought but does not determine it. Language can make certain ways of thinking easier or more habitual. For instance, a language that uses gendered nouns for objects (like French or German) might subtly encourage its speakers to associate those objects with masculine or feminine traits, an effect that would be absent for an English speaker. Thus, the debate has shifted from whether language determines thought to how, and to what extent, it influences it.
71. What are the two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis discussed in the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage clearly identifies the “strongest form known as linguistic determinism” and the “weaker version, known as linguistic relativity.”
72. Linguistic determinism is the idea that:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage defines linguistic determinism as the view that language “fundamentally shapes and limits their cognitive processes” and that “one cannot think about concepts for which their language has no words.” This is a clear statement of language determining thought.
73. Why has the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis been “largely discredited”?
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage explicitly states that the strong version “has been largely discredited” because “Evidence shows that speakers can perceive and conceptualize things for which they lack a specific term.”
74. Linguistic relativity, the weaker version, proposes that language:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage describes this weaker version as suggesting that “language influences thought but does not determine it” and “can make certain ways of thinking easier or more habitual.”
75. The example of gendered nouns in French and German is used to illustrate:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: This example is provided immediately after the definition of linguistic relativity. It shows a subtle *influence* or *tendency* (“might subtly encourage”) rather than a strict *determination*. An English speaker can still understand the concept, but the French/German speaker might be more inclined towards a certain association, which is the essence of relativity.
76. The word “posits” in the first sentence means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: To posit something is to suggest or put it forward as a fact or basis for argument. The hypothesis *posits* or *proposes* an idea.
77. The overall shift in the debate described in the passage is from:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The debate shifted from linguistic determinism (an absolute position: language *determines* thought) to linguistic relativity (a nuanced position: language *influences* thought to some extent). This is a move from an all-or-nothing view to a more subtle and qualified one.
78. It can be inferred that the author of the passage:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The author presents linguistic determinism as “largely discredited” and linguistic relativity as “more widely accepted.” The final sentence framing the modern debate around influence rather than determination also suggests an acceptance of the weaker, more plausible version of the hypothesis.
79. According to the principle of linguistic relativity, which of the following is most likely to be true?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: This option perfectly captures the essence of linguistic relativity. It’s not about being unable to understand something (like A and C), but about a subtle influence, a tendency, or making something “slightly easier or more habitual.” It’s an influence, not a hard limit.
80. The primary purpose of the passage is to:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage introduces the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, explains its two main forms (determinism and relativity), and traces how scientific consensus has shifted from the former to the latter. This is a clear explanation of a hypothesis and its changing interpretation.
Passage 9 (Questions 81-90)
Utilitarianism, a cornerstone of normative ethics, is a theory that advocates actions that promote happiness or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm. When directed toward making social, economic, or political decisions, a utilitarian philosophy would aim for the “greatest good for the greatest number.” Its founders, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, had different conceptions of this “good.” Bentham proposed a quantitative approach, a “hedonistic calculus” to measure the amount of pleasure or pain an action would produce. For him, all pleasures were equal; the pleasure from playing a simple game was as valuable as the pleasure from appreciating fine art, provided the quantity was the same. Mill, however, introduced a qualitative distinction, arguing that some pleasures are inherently superior to others. He famously asserted that it is “better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” This distinction between higher (intellectual, moral) and lower (bodily, sensual) pleasures represents a significant schism within utilitarian thought, raising questions about who decides which pleasures are “higher” and whether the theory remains truly objective.
81. What is the fundamental principle of utilitarianism?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage defines utilitarianism as a theory that “advocates actions that promote happiness or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm” and aims for the “greatest good for the greatest number.” This is a clear statement of maximizing overall happiness.
82. The main difference between Bentham’s and Mill’s versions of utilitarianism lies in their views on:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage explicitly contrasts Bentham’s “quantitative approach” (where all pleasures are equal) with Mill’s “qualitative distinction” (where some pleasures are inherently superior). This is the central point of comparison made in the passage.
83. Bentham’s “hedonistic calculus” was intended to be a:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage describes it as a “quantitative approach… to measure the amount of pleasure or pain an action would produce.” This points to its function as an objective measurement tool.
84. The quote “better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied” is used to support the idea that:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: This quote is Mill’s famous defense of his qualitative distinction. It argues that the “dissatisfied” state of a higher being (Socrates, a human) is preferable to the “satisfied” state of a lower one (a fool, a pig), because the *type* of experience is more valuable, even if it brings less simple contentment.
85. The word “schism” in the passage means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: A schism is a major split or division within a group, organization, or movement, typically caused by a strong difference of opinion. The difference between Bentham’s and Mill’s views is presented as a “significant schism within utilitarian thought.”
86. A potential problem with Mill’s version of utilitarianism, as mentioned in the passage, is:
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage concludes by “raising questions about who decides which pleasures are ‘higher’ and whether the theory remains truly objective.” This points directly to the problem of subjectivity introduced by Mill’s qualitative distinction.
87. According to Bentham’s logic, if Action A produces 10 units of pleasure for one person and Action B produces 2 units of pleasure for six people (totaling 12 units), which action should be chosen?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Bentham’s approach is purely quantitative and aims for the “greatest good for the greatest number.” Action B produces a greater total amount of pleasure (12 units vs. 10) and distributes it among more people. For Bentham, this would be the superior choice, regardless of the type of pleasure.
88. It can be inferred that John Stuart Mill would likely value which of the following more highly?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: Mill distinguished between “higher” (intellectual, moral) and “lower” (bodily, sensual) pleasures. Listening to a complex symphony falls under the category of higher, intellectual/aesthetic pleasure, while eating and napping are lower, bodily pleasures. Therefore, Mill would argue that the pleasure from the symphony is qualitatively superior.
89. The word “inherently” means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: “Inherently” means existing in something as a permanent, essential, or characteristic attribute. Mill’s argument is that some pleasures are, by their very nature, better than others, not just because of circumstance or opinion.
90. The primary purpose of this passage is to:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage defines utilitarianism, explains its core tenet, and then dedicates most of its space to outlining and contrasting the views of its two main proponents, highlighting a key “schism” or debate within the philosophy. This is an explanatory and analytical purpose.
Passage 10 (Questions 91-100)
The concept of “confirmation bias” is a pervasive cognitive bias that describes the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. It is a form of selective information processing where people unconsciously cherry-pick evidence that supports their views while ignoring or downplaying evidence that contradicts them. This bias is not a sign of low intelligence; rather, it is a default mode of human cognition, a mental shortcut that helps in processing the vast amount of information we encounter. However, its consequences can be profound. In science, it can lead researchers to cling to flawed theories. In finance, it can cause investors to overlook warning signs of a bad investment. On a personal level, it reinforces stereotypes and makes it difficult to change one’s mind, even in the face of overwhelming contradictory evidence. Overcoming confirmation bias requires a conscious and diligent effort to seek out and genuinely consider dissenting viewpoints and disconfirming evidence—a practice that runs counter to our natural cognitive inclinations.
91. What is the best definition of confirmation bias according to the passage?
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The first sentence provides a clear definition: “the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.” This directly matches option B.
92. The word “pervasive” in the first sentence means:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: “Pervasive” means widespread or prevalent. The passage suggests that confirmation bias is a common human trait, not a rare one, which fits this meaning.
93. The passage suggests that confirmation bias is:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage states that people “unconsciously cherry-pick evidence” and that the bias is “a default mode of human cognition, a mental shortcut.” This indicates it is a natural process, not a deliberate act or a sign of weakness.
94. “Cherry-picking evidence” is a metaphor for:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The metaphor comes from picking only the best, ripe cherries from a tree and ignoring the others. In the context of evidence, it means selecting only the convenient, supportive pieces of information while ignoring the rest, which is the essence of confirmation bias.
95. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a potential consequence of confirmation bias?
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Correct Answer: (D)
Explanation: The passage lists A, B, and C as negative consequences. While confirmation bias acts as a mental shortcut to speed up processing, the passage focuses on its profound negative consequences, implying it leads to *inaccurate* decisions, not improved ones.
96. What does the passage suggest is required to overcome confirmation bias?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The final sentence explicitly states that overcoming the bias “requires a conscious and diligent effort to seek out and genuinely consider dissenting viewpoints and disconfirming evidence.”
97. It can be inferred that confirmation bias makes political polarization worse because:
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Correct Answer: (B)
Explanation: The passage explains that the bias leads people to favor information supporting their beliefs and ignore contradictory info. In a political context, this would mean a person would consume news and opinions that align with their party, dismiss opposing views, and become more entrenched in their position, thus worsening polarization.
98. The word “dissenting” in the last sentence means:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: To dissent is to hold or express opinions that are at variance with those previously, commonly, or officially held. A “dissenting viewpoint” is one that opposes or disagrees with one’s own, which is exactly what one needs to seek out to counter confirmation bias.
99. The author’s tone throughout the passage is best described as:
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: The passage is primarily informative, explaining what confirmation bias is. However, by detailing its “profound” negative consequences in various fields and describing the difficulty in overcoming it, the author also adopts a cautionary tone, warning the reader about this cognitive pitfall.
100. Why does the author state that confirmation bias “is not a sign of low intelligence”?
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Correct Answer: (C)
Explanation: By preemptively correcting this potential misunderstanding, the author reinforces the main point that this bias is a “default mode of human cognition.” It’s not a flaw of a specific group of people but a fundamental aspect of how all human minds work, regardless of intelligence. This makes the phenomenon more universal and its cautionary message more relevant to every reader.
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